Home > The Bible > Old Testament Overview
Old Testament Overview
The Old Testament is the inspired, foundational word of God. Covering the time period of roughly 4000 to 400 B.C., authorship is traditionally attributed to the Hebrew prophets, beginning with Moses and extending through the time of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The Old Testament begins with a description of the origin of the material universe and the earliest events of human history, then focuses on the history and prophets of the nation of Israel, through which God reveals His attributes, wisdom and expectations to humanity.
A brief description of each book of the Old Testament is provided below.
Genesis • Exodus • Leviticus • Numbers • Deuteronomy
Joshua • Judges • Ruth • 1 Samuel • 2 Samuel • 1 Kings • 2 Kings • 1 Chronicles • 2 Chronicles • Ezra • Nehemiah • Esther
Job • Psalms • Proverbs • Ecclesiastes • Song of Solomon
Isaiah • Jeremiah • Lamentations • Ezekiel • Daniel
Hosea • Joel • Amos • Obadiah • Jonah • Micah • Nahum • Habakkuk • Zephaniah • Haggai • Zechariah • Malachi
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. — Genesis 1:1
Authorship of the first five books of the Old Testament is traditionally assigned to Moses, who wrote under divine inspiration during the approximate timespan of 1450-1400 B.C. The first entry of the biblical canon, Genesis chronicles the beginning of history, from God’s creation of the material universe and its creatures, to His early dealings with man and the establishment of His covenants with the Hebrew people.
Genesis relates how sin entered the world and its consequent penalties of physical death and spiritual separation from God, as well as the earliest promise of a Redeemer who will ultimately bring reconciliation. God is revealed as the eternal, righteous, holy, sovereign ruler of the universe, administering perfect judgment and lovingkindness to His intended purpose.
Spanning a timeframe of approximately 4000 to 1850 B.C., Genesis includes the complete early history and lineage of Israel, from the calling of Abram from Ur of the Chaldees (c. 2090 B.C.) to the arrival of the family of Joseph in lower Egypt (c. 1875 B.C.). Key events in the lives of the Hebrew fathers Abraham, Issac, and Jacob (Israel) and God's development of their faith are described in detail. The book records the key covenants established by God with humanity in general and the Israelites in particular; the original covenant of works with Adam, the Noahic, and Abrahamic covenants. Each of these are components of God’s overarching covenant of grace, culminating in Jesus Christ and the eternal redemption made possible by His atonement for the sin of mankind.
“I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. You shall have no other gods before Me.” — Exodus 20:2-3
Exodus continues the historical record of Israel, focusing on the Egyptian captivity and deliverance by the hand of God (c. 1450 B.C.). Moses is the central person of the narrative, a man chosen by God to lead His people out of bondage, give them His law and commandments, and organize them into a nation. The sovereign power of God is illustrated through the miraculous works that break Egypt, sustain Israel, and guide His chosen people toward the land He promised to Abraham. As with many other books of the Bible, the importance of faith in God for providence is a central theme of Exodus. In faith, the people cry out to God for deliverance from 400 years of oppression, and God moves to do so. When they later become unfaithful, God brings judgment upon them.
The first half of the book records the events leading to the liberation of Israel and their subsequent journey through the desert to Mount Sinai. There Moses receives the Ten Commandments from God, along with other laws for governing the people, worship, and establishing the tabernacle where His presence will dwell as they travel. Soon however, Israel turns from the Lord and begins engaging in idolatry, even as Moses is continuing to receive God’s ordinances. God’s anger is kindled, Moses intercedes, and while the fullness of divine wrath is abated, thousands of the rebellious are struck down. The journey resumes, God renews His covenant with Israel, and work continues on establishing the tabernacle and implementing the sacrificial system.
The second half of Exodus focuses on God's giving of the law to Israel. A significant part of His unfolding covenant of grace, God's law underscores the extent of human sin and the need for a Savior capable of making atonement. The concept is emphasized greatly in the subsequent book of Leviticus as much more of God’s moral, ceremonial, and judicial law is revealed.
“Speak to all the congregation of the sons of Israel and say to them, ‘You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.’” — Leviticus 19:2
A continuation of the moral, ceremonial, and judicial laws given to Moses, Leviticus emphasizes the holiness of God and His desire that His people be holy. The book derives its name from the tribe of Levi, the line of Israelites set aside by God to conduct the tabernacle services, which included the various sacrifices and offerings. Through its expansive list of ordinances, Leviticus demonstrates how a perfectly holy God is able to relate to sinful humanity and the particular manner in which He is to be approached. The sacrificial system it describes foreshadows God’s forgiveness of sin through the one, ultimate mediator, Jesus Christ. The blood of the sacrifices which “covers” the sin of the people serves as a type which points to the greater, all-sufficient blood of Christ which atones for sin and makes true peace with God possible.
There is very little narrative content in Leviticus. Most of it appears in instances of God addressing Moses with some form of "Speak to the sons of Israel and say to them..." followed by exhaustively detailed commandments. A notable exception is the account of the death of Aaron’s sons in chapter 10. In their role as priests, they are struck down by God for an incense offering that did not comply with what was specifically prescribed in the law. The episode underscores God’s holy standard and the requirement of obedience to that standard.
"Your sons shall be shepherds for forty years in the wilderness, and they will suffer for your unfaithfulness, until your corpses lie in the wilderness. According to the number of days which you spied out the land, forty days, for every day you shall bear your guilt a year, even forty years, and you will know My opposition. I, the Lord, have spoken, surely this I will do to all this evil congregation who are gathered together against Me. In this wilderness they shall be destroyed, and there they will die." — Numbers 14:33-35
The title of the book of Numbers relates to the two separate counts of the Israelite people that bookend the text: one that was taken two years after the exodus from Egypt, and the second which was taken about 40 years later as they prepared to enter the promised land of Canaan. The book records the Sinai wilderness wanderings of Israel from approximately 1446 to 1406 B.C., highlighting their various issues and conflicts. As in Exodus, the fortunes of the people are shown to correspond to how strongly they trust in God. Though God’s presence is always before them, the faith of the people routinely falters and they become doubtful and disobedient, which triggers divine chastisement and correction.
The most significant judgment God brings on Israel for its unfaithfulness occurs in chapter 14, when He decrees that the original generation that has repeatedly put Him “to the test” and grumbled against Him will not live to take possession of Canaan. Thus begins a nearly 40 year desert exile. Through the decades in the wilderness, God teaches Israel to be obedient, and eventually a new generation emerges that is devoted to Him. Numbers concludes with the Hebrew nation finally arriving at the banks of the Jordan River and poised to enter the promised land.
Several prominent episodes referenced in other parts of scripture occur in Numbers, including the mission of the 12 spies sent to scout the land of Canaan, Moses striking the rock to produce water, Moses lifting up the bronze serpent to heal the people, and the reluctant prophecies of Balaam. Interspersed also are additional ordinances related to priesthood and worship, civil law, and rules to follow in the new land.
"I call heaven and earth to witness against you today, that I have set before you life and death, the blessing and the curse. So choose life in order that you may live, you and your descendants, by loving the Lord your God, by obeying His voice, and by holding fast to Him; for this is your life and the length of your days,that you may live in the land which the Lord swore to your fathers, to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to give them.”— Deuteronomy 30:19-20
The title of Deuteronomy originates from a Greek word meaning “copy” or “repetition”. As the Israelites are about to begin the process of settling in the promised land of Canaan, Moses repeats God’s law for the people and emphasizes that following it is critical to their future well-being as they transition from a nomadic to a settled culture. It is a new generation of Israelites being addressed here, hence the need for a second giving of the law and a refresher on what has gone before.
Moses recounts Israel’s history as God’s covenant nation and reminds them of the failure of the previous generation to trust in God, who will always be faithful to them. It is reemphasized that the obedience of the people will be rewarded with divine blessing, while disobedience will be punished. Moses affirms that the new land is theirs by God’s decree and that they are to take possession of it, while preparing them for dealing with the idolatrous peoples they will encounter in doing so. The oneness of God and the unity of “all Israel” are highlighted, in contrast with the native, polytheistic, disparate nation-states that are to be displaced. God will be with Israel as Israel trusts in Him.
The setting for Deuteronomy is the border of Canaan at the Jordan River. Because of the disobedience that Moses committed in striking the rock during the wilderness exile, God prohibits him from entering the promised land, though He allows him to glimpse it. The book ends with the death of Moses and his protege Joshua being raised as the new leader of the people.
“Be strong and courageous, for you shall give this people possession of the land which I swore to their fathers to give them. Only be strong and very courageous; be careful to do according to all the law which Moses My servant commanded you; do not turn from it to the right or to the left, so that you may have success wherever you go.” — Joshua 1:6-7
Joshua is named for the Hebrew leader who succeeded Moses, led the conquest of Canaan, and saw to the allotment of the land to the tribes of Israel. The book is the first of what are categorized as the Old Testament’s “historical” books and chronicles the time period of roughly 1406 to 1380 B.C. Authorship is traditionally ascribed to Joshua or a writer under his direction. God is shown to communicate with Joshua in a similar manner in which He did with Moses.
Several military campaigns are described as the Israelites fight to take possession of the promised land as directed by God. The Lord is portrayed as a kind of field general, delivering victories to Israel over the Canaanites as long as the people are obedient and place their trust in Him. The power of this blessing is most notable in the conquest of Jericho described in chapter 6, where the formidable defenses of the city are destroyed by God’s direct supernatural intervention. The victory however is contrasted with a subsequent defeat at Ai, triggered by Israel’s disobedience regarding the taking of spoils prohibited by God at Jericho. Despite the clear evidence of God’s provision when they are obedient and trust in Him, Israel’s ultimately lukewarm faith stops them from possessing all of the land. This leaves them exposed to the idolatrous influences of the people they failed to vanquish.
The basic geographical boundaries of Israel are outlined in the text through the description of the land allotments made among the 12 tribes, and judicial cities of refuge are established. The book closes with Joshua’s reminder to Israel of God’s faithfulness, and his encouragement to them to remain obedient to His law.
In those days there was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his own eyes. — Judges 21:25
The book of Judges describes the period extending from the death of Joshua until just before Saul was crowned king of Israel, or roughly 1300 BC to 1050 B.C. The text records the Israelites’ ongoing efforts to settle the land of Canaan and their conflicts with the other peoples still occupying parts of it. Though the writer is not known for certain, Jewish tradition assigns authorship to the prophet/judge Samuel.
Throughout the book a repeating loop of judgment and salvation is experienced by God’s people. Each episode follows a similar pattern: Israel falls into apostasy (unfaithful to God and turning to idolatry), God brings judgment upon them through conquest and oppression by other nations, Israel cries out to God for mercy, and God delivers them. In each case, God providentially raises an administrative and military leader (or “judge”) from among the people to overthrow the oppressors and return Israel to a state of peace, stability and prosperity for a time. The judges whose episodes are presented in detail in the text are: Othniel, who God raised to deliver Israel from Aram-Naharaim; Ehud (vs. Moab), Deborah (vs. Hazor), Gideon (vs. Midian), Jephthah (vs. Ammon), and Samson (vs. Philistia).
In Judges we see Israel repeatedly failing to uphold its end of the covenant with God by which the people were to be faithful to Him and consequently receive His blessing. Instead they became subject to God’s chastisement and earthly judgment because of their disobedience and idol worship. In contrast, God did not forget His covenant with His people, and used His righteous judgment in the form of aggressor nations to bring Israel to a place of conviction and repentance; that the people would turn again to Him in faith and be reconciled.
Judges delivers the familiar message that those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it. It provides a clear picture of God’s application of judgment and mercy in this world, that sin will surely be punished and faithfulness will just as surely be rewarded.
"May the Lord reward your work, and your wages be full from the Lord, the God of Israel, under whose wings you have come to seek refuge.” Then she said, “I have found favor in your sight, my lord, for you have comforted me and indeed have spoken kindly to your maidservant, though I am not like one of your maidservants.” — Ruth 2:12-13
Ruth provides a vignette from the period of the Judges that emphasizes the value of loyalty, love, and grace. Though the author is not identified in the text, Jewish tradition assigns authorship to the prophet Samuel. Ruth stands apart as kind of interlude amidst the more broad Hebrew chronology presented in the adjacent books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel.
The book begins with the family of a woman named Naomi which has left Judah for Moab due to a famine. Naomi’s husband soon dies, and her sons eventually marry Moabite women. Within ten years the sons have also died, and Naomi decides to return to Judah, encouraging her daughters-in-law to return to their own people to find new husbands. However one of them, Ruth, is determined to remain with her, saying “your people shall be my people, and your God, my God.” Once in Judah, Ruth gleans in the grain fields to support them and encounters Boaz, a wealthy kinsman of Naomi’s husband. Despite her Gentile ancestry, Ruth finds favor with Boaz, who respects her humility, righteousness and devotion to Naomi and eventually pledges to redeem her as his bride. The book ends with Ruth and Boaz married, and their son Obed revealed to be the future grandfather of David.
The concept of the “kinsman-redeemer” introduced in Leviticus 25 is illustrated in the book of Ruth through Boaz, a type of Christ. His redemption of Ruth and Naomi foreshadows Christ’s redemption of humanity, his faithfulness to his kinsman echoes God's faithfulness, and the grace he extends reflects divine, saving grace. Ruth provides another example from the scriptures where God blesses those who are righteous and obedient, and offers a valuable illustration of how people are to love and care for one another.
But the thing was displeasing in the sight of Samuel when they said, “Give us a king to judge us.” And Samuel prayed to the Lord. The Lord said to Samuel, “Listen to the voice of the people in regard to all that they say to you, for they have not rejected you, but they have rejected Me from being king over them. — 1 Samuel 8:6-7
Spanning the period of roughly 1100 to 1000 B.C., 1 Samuel recounts the life and ministry of the judge and prophet Samuel, the events leading to the establishment of the monarchy in Israel, and the reign of its first king, Saul. 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel comprise one book in the Hebrew Bible and while authorship is not known for certain, it is commonly attributed to Samuel and/or the prophets Nathan and Gad, who are all credited in scripture as recording “acts of King David” (1 Chr 29:29).
The narrative begins near the end of the period of the judges with the miraculous birth of Samuel, and his mother’s dedication of him to the Lord’s service. He is raised in the tabernacle by the judge/high priest Eli, and later receives the prophetic call from God and becomes the last judge after the death of Eli and his sons. The nation of Israel to this point in its history has operated as a pure theocracy under the law of God, but the people have started to demand a king to rule over them as the other nations of the world have. Despite the faithlessness of the nation, God instructs Samuel to anoint a king and give the people what they have asked for. Saul is anointed king, though he has an unrighteous and disobedient heart which leads to God’s later rejection and his eventual demise. Samuel anoints David at the Lord’s instruction, who is poised to become king after the death of Saul and his sons.
First Samuel records the early days of Israel’s monarchy and a first look at David, God’s ultimate choice of earthly king for the nation, and the king through whose line Jesus will eventually come. God’s sovereignty is underscored throughout the text as He works through divine providence in the lives of the key players, using circumstances and events to bring about His intended purpose.
“Your house and your kingdom shall endure before Me forever; your throne shall be established forever.” — 2 Samuel 7:16
The primary subject of 2 Samuel is King David, who is introduced in 1 Samuel as God’s choice as His vice-regent to lead the Hebrew nation. Second Samuel covers approximately the next 40 years, from David’s installation as king in Judah, through the various triumphs and trials of his reign, to just before he transfers the crown to his son Solomon.
The beginning of David’s rule is marked by civil war, as one of Saul’s sons has been made king of the northern region of Israel. Judah and Israel are eventually unified under David, and he relocates the capital from Hebron to Jerusalem. David is shown to be a virtuous sovereign who “administered justice and righteousness for all his people”, and many military victories over enemy nations are achieved by God’s hand. God makes a covenant with David that his son will inherit the throne and build the temple in Jerusalem, that His lovingkindness will never depart from his family, and that the dynasty they represent will be established forever. The promise extends beyond Solomon to Jesus Christ, the “greater David” who will reign universally and eternally.
However, sin and its consequences are also illustrated in the life of David. His affair with Bathsheba and his arranged killing of her husband draws the ire of God, who pledges “the sword shall never depart from your house”. Various hardships and conflicts come to David’s family, and enemies including his son Absalom conspire against him to the point of rendering him a fugitive. It is during this period that David writes many of his psalms, as he laments his transgressions, seeks God’s forgiveness, and exercises sincere repentance.
Second Samuel shows that people reap what they sow, and that everyone—the godly-minded included—are subject to pride, temptation, and moral failure. It also shows that God is merciful and responds to true repentance. Though His people may fall into periods of faithlessness and disobedience, His promise and faithfulness to them never wanes.
“But if you or your sons indeed turn away from following Me, and do not keep My commandments and My statutes which I have set before you, and go and serve other gods and worship them, then I will cut off Israel from the land which I have given them, and the house which I have consecrated for My name, I will cast out of My sight. So Israel will become a proverb and a byword among all peoples.” — 1 Kings 9:6-7
First Kings continues the written history of the Hebrew monarchy and spans an approximate timeframe of 970 to 852 B.C., from the reign of David’s son Solomon to the time of the prophet Elijah and the deaths of kings Ahab and Jehoshaphat. Authorship is not settled but some attribute the writings of 1 and 2 Kings to the prophet Jeremiah. The book provides a strong warning against ungodly influences and associations, and the consequences of obedience and disobedience to God are clearly illustrated. The reigns of kings recorded in the text are categorized simply by whether they “did evil” or “did what was right in the sight of the Lord.”
Enabled by God to be a wise ruler, Solomon is initially faithful, rules over a prosperous and united Israel, and oversees the building of the temple in Jerusalem as directed by the Lord. However he gradually descends into self-indulgence and idolatry, and the people likewise begin to drift from God. A series of mostly unrighteous, disobedient kings follow and the unified kingdom fractures into northern (Israel) and southern (Judah) kingdoms. Idol worship is rampant throughout the land, exemplified by the Baal-worship instituted under King Ahab in Israel. In response, God raises Elijah to pronounce judgment and call the people to repentance. Characterized by confrontational preaching and powerful miracles that prefigure the earthly ministry of Christ, Elijah’s prophetic ministry reaches its apex in a challenge to the priests of Baal in which God emphatically prevails. However ongoing faithlessness continues to erode the stability of Israel and Judah, setting the stage for their eventual conquest by aggressor nations appointed by God.
Now this came about because the sons of Israel had sinned against the Lord their God, who had brought them up from the land of Egypt from under the hand of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and they had feared other gods and walked in the customs of the nations whom the Lord had driven out before the sons of Israel, and in the customs of the kings of Israel which they had introduced. — 2 Kings 17:7-8
Covering the period of approximately 852 to 586 B.C., 2 Kings concludes the history of the Hebrew monarchies and records the falls of both the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. As in 1 Kings, the descriptions of rulers are categorized based on their obedience or disobedience to God; none of the kings of Israel are shown to have done right in His sight and only a handful of Judah’s kings acted righteously. God answers the ongoing apostasy of His people by bringing judgment upon them through conquest. Assyria invaded and conquered Israel in 722 B.C., while Babylon’s invasion of Judah culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem in 586. The people were exiled as captives and the national monarchies were finished.
Elisha succeeded Elijah as God’s prophet in Israel and his activities and miracles are highlighted prominently. A number of other notable prophets were raised by God during the events of 2 Kings, including Amos and Hosea in Israel and Isaiah, Jeremiah, Joel, Micah, Nahum, Habbakuk, and Zephaniah in Judah.
The underlying theme of 2 Kings is that unfaithfulness leads to destruction. Though repentance and obedience occur rarely in the account, these qualities engender blessing from God when they do surface. Examples include the actions of kings Jehoash, Hezekiah, and Josiah, which result in God delaying or curtailing various judgments.
“O Lord, there is none like You, nor is there any God besides You, according to all that we have heard with our ears. And what one nation in the earth is like Your people Israel, whom God went to redeem for Himself as a people, to make You a name by great and terrible things, in driving out nations from before Your people, whom You redeemed out of Egypt? For Your people Israel You made Your own people forever, and You, O Lord, became their God.” — 1 Chronicles 17:20-22
Written from the perspective of a Jewish priest, 1 Chronicles forms a single text with 2 Chronicles. The book slightly predates Kings and covers roughly the same historical period as 2 Samuel through 2 Kings. First Chronicles focuses on the reign of King David, placing emphasis on the proper worship of God and obedience to His ordinances. The author is not known for certain, but the priest/scribe Ezra has been commonly suggested as a possibility.
In 1 Chronicles we see God’s affirmation of His covenant with David, through which the eternal reign of Jesus Christ will eventually come, and David’s prayers of praise and thanksgiving are a significant feature in the text. Important events during David’s rule are recorded, including: the establishment of Jerusalem as capital; the challenging transport of the Ark of the Covenant; wars with Philistine, Ammon and Aram; his sinful numbering of the people; the planning of the Jerusalem temple; and the transfer of the kingdom to his son Solomon.
About half of the content of 1 Chronicles is in the form of comprehensive genealogies spanning from Adam through the descendants of Abraham, along with detailed lists of temple, ministry, and military officials. Chronicles was written after the fall of the Jewish monarchies, and this information may have been included to help reinforce the identity of the Jewish people and emphasize national continuity despite their scattering and exile.
“If I shut up the heavens so that there is no rain, or if I command the locust to devour the land, or if I send pestilence among My people, and My people who are called by My name humble themselves and pray and seek My face and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, will forgive their sin and will heal their land.” — 2 Chronicles 7:13-14
Second Chronicles continues the priestly account of the Jewish monarchy beginning with the rule of Solomon in approximately 970 B.C. The text records the subsequent division of the kingdom during the reign of his son Rehoboam, focusing primarily on the history of the southern kingdom of Judah until its conquest by Babylon in 586 B.C. Second Chronicles originally formed a single historical work with 1 Chronicles. Authorship is unconfirmed but tradition commonly assigns it to Ezra in the post-exilic period.
The building of the first temple in Jerusalem is prominently featured and comprises much of the book’s account of Solomon’s rule. The high priority and exacting requirements of the project underscores the absolute holiness of God and the importance of obedience to His commandments. The division of the kingdom of Israel was an inevitable outcome for a nation that drifted in its faith and placed its primary trust in the rule of man instead of the rule of God.
Though it was marked by a number of corrupt kings that brought regular chastisement and judgment from God, Judah was generally more obedient to the Lord’s will than the northern kingdom of Israel. Second Chronicles’ account of Judah’s alternating rebellion and revival, in contrast to the outright apostasy of Israel, provides a useful framework for understanding God’s motivations for judgment and blessing. The book testifies plainly to the fact that God’s actions in the lives of people and nations depend on how they receive and respond to Him.
But now for a brief moment grace has been shown from the Lord our God, to leave us an escaped remnant and to give us a peg in His holy place, that our God may enlighten our eyes and grant us a little reviving in our bondage. For we are slaves; yet in our bondage our God has not forsaken us, but has extended lovingkindness to us in the sight of the kings of Persia, to give us reviving to raise up the house of our God, to restore its ruins and to give us a wall in Judah and Jerusalem. — Ezra 9:8-9
Originally forming one text with the book of Nehemiah, the book of Ezra is named for the Jewish priest-scribe who participated in leading the Israelites back from exile and reinstituting the worship of God in Jerusalem. The book covers the approximate period of 538-450 B.C., recording the return of God’s people to their land and the restoration of the Jewish religious system.
Within 50 years of the Babylonian conquest of Judah, Cyrus II of Persia had conquered Babylon. God compelled Cyrus to issue an edict allowing the Jewish people to resettle their land and rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. Zerubbabel, the grandson of Judah’s second-to-last king Jehoiachin, led an initial group of 42,000+ Jews to Judah for the task. Despite opposition from locals and neighboring provinces, Zerubbabel succeeds in completing the temple nearly 25 years later. Around 458 B.C., God inspires the Persian king Artaxerxes to send Ezra, a direct descendant of Aaron, to Judah to apply His law and purify the people, who have intermarried with gentiles in violation of Levitical ordinances. Ezra intercedes for the people, who largely repent and are reconciled.
The book of Ezra describes the struggle of the Israelites, providentially gathered again in their land, to renew their relationship with the Lord. It provides illustrations of God’s mercy and sovereignty, revealing that He will always achieve His purpose and that He will always preserve a remnant of people through which His kingdom is represented on the earth.
“So the wall was completed on the twenty-fifth of the month Elul, in fifty-two days. When all our enemies heard of it, and all the nations surrounding us saw it, they lost their confidence; for they recognized that this work had been accomplished with the help of our God.” — Nehemiah 6:15-16
The book of Nehemiah records the third phase of the return of the Jewish people and the reestablishment of Jewish religious culture in their own land from 444 to approximately 430-420 B.C. It originally formed one text with the book of Ezra and serves as a sequel to that narrative which concludes the chronology of the Old Testament’s account. It is named for Nehemiah, the Hebrew cupbearer to King Artaxerxes of Persia who led the rebuilding of Jerusalem and served as its governor.
Learning of the hardships of post-exilic Judah and the state of desolation in which Jerusalem remained, Nehemiah asks the king to allow him to return to rebuild the city. After arriving, Nehemiah embarks on a massive project to reconstruct the city walls. He is opposed by the Samaritans of the region who seek to undermine his leadership and destroy the work. The workers press on, to the extent that men were working with a tool in one hand and a weapon in the other, and by God’s hand, the wall is finished in a mere 52 days. As governor, Nehemiah implements civil reforms and works alongside the priest Ezra to reinstitute temple ordinances in Jerusalem and lead the people to repent and rededicate themselves to God.
Nehemiah was neither a prophet nor a priest, yet played a critical role in strengthening the remnant of God’s people for the next chapter of life in their land. Motivated by compassion for his people, he interceded for them in prayer and actively worked to bring them back to obedience to the word of God. Nehemiah’s conviction and perseverance under adversity sets a powerful leadership example and his faithfulness in service to the Lord provides a model for all believers to follow, regardless of whether their service falls within secular or ministerial domains.
“For if you remain silent at this time, relief and deliverance will arise for the Jews from another place and you and your father’s house will perish. And who knows whether you have not attained royalty for such a time as this?” — Esther 4:14
The story of Esther takes place in the Persian capital of Susa, between the first and second phases of the Jewish return from the Babylonian exile, from about 483 to 473 B.C. The book is unique due to its omission of any direct reference to God, though His providential hand is evident through the circumstances and events which conspire to deliver the Jewish population of Persia from destruction.
King Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) revokes the royal position of his wife Vashti due to her disobedience and chooses a Hebrew girl Esther (Hadassah) to succeed her. Esther is an orphan who has been raised by her uncle Mordecai. Ahasuerus appoints Haman, a descendent of King Agag of the Amalekites, as his prime minister and Mordecai refuses to pay homage to him. Angered by the slight, Haman manipulates the king to back an edict calling for all Jews in the kingdom to be killed. Mordecai implores Esther to intervene on behalf of her people, and at great personal risk she does so and exposes Haman’s plot to the king. Haman is executed, Mordecai is promoted in his place, and the Jews of the kingdom are given liberty to take up arms against any in the kingdom who intend them harm—a full reversal of the original edict. The Feast of Purim, observed by Jews to this day, is established to commemorate the triumph.
The book of Esther emphasizes the fact that the living God is a God of means. In contrast to direct supernatural intervention, it is by providence—His use of secondary sources such as people and circumstance—that His sovereignty is asserted and His purposes achieved on the earth. In Esther, we are given a powerful illustration of God’s faithfulness, omnipresence, and how He places people in exact positions and situations to achieve His decreed outcome.
Then Job answered the Lord and said, “I know that You can do all things, and that no purpose of Yours can be thwarted. ‘Who is this that hides counsel without knowledge?’ Therefore I have declared that which I did not understand, things too wonderful for me, which I did not know.” — Job 42:1-3
The section of the Old Testament historically categorized as the “wisdom books” begins with the book of Job. It describes a series of calamities brought by Satan into the life of Job, a righteous and faithful servant of God, and Job’s struggle to make sense of his hardships and endure. The book is believed to be one of the earliest written in the Old Testament canon, and the events it describes are thought to have taken place during the days of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, sometime between approximately 2100 and 1900 B.C.
Job provides a unique look into God’s dealings with Satan and important insight on the question of why God allows the righteous to suffer in this life. The lengthy middle section of the book records a discussion between Job and his friends as they speculate ignorantly as to why he has been dealt such severe trials, and Job’s appeals to God for an explanation. When God finally responds to Job, He does not give the reasons for His actions but instead delivers an overwhelming reminder of who He is.
The book of Job affirms the limitations of human perspective and contrasts it with the transcendent, infinite nature of the living God. His motivations and the ways of His providence are not always revealed to people, and being the sovereign Creator and Ruler of the universe He is under no obligation to do so. Job never knows why the events of his life unfold as they do, but through his trials and restoration he comes to a place of greater faith and trust in a God who causes or allows all things to His glory and the ultimate good of His own.
Sing praise to the Lord, you His godly ones, and give thanks to His holy name. — Psalm 30:4
The longest book in the Bible, Psalms is a collection of 150 lyrical poems and hymns praising God. It was written by a number of different inspired authors dating from Moses through the Babylonian captivity. Its title is derived from a Greek word meaning “songs of praise”, and it provides the most comprehensive expression of worship to be found in the scriptures.
Psalms is divided into five major sections (Ps 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106, 107-150), each closing with a unique doxology. Individual psalms are varied in content, and include hymns of praise, royal psalms, communal and individual lamentations, and psalms of thanksgiving. David is identified as having written 73 of the psalms, while other credited writers include Solomon, Moses, Heman, Ethan, Asaph and the sons of Korah. Fifty of the psalms are uncredited or were written anonymously.
The book of Psalms exemplifies how we are to regard, appreciate, and approach God, providing timeless models for appropriate worship and prayer, no matter what life situation a person may find themselves in. Despite its multitude of authors over a considerable time span, Psalms paints a consistent, composite picture of God’s power, greatness, faithfulness, and lovingkindness, while emphasizing the eternality and critical importance of His word.
To know wisdom and instruction, to discern the sayings of understanding, to receive instruction in wise behavior, righteousness, justice and equity; to give prudence to the naïve, to the youth knowledge and discretion, a wise man will hear and increase in learning, and a man of understanding will acquire wise counsel, to understand a proverb and a figure, the words of the wise and their riddles. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction. — Proverbs 1:2-7
The book of Proverbs is a poetic collection of short, profound sayings intended to impart practical, moral, and spiritual guidance. While the collection is believed to have multiple contributors, Solomon has been traditionally accepted as the main author and compiler, which would date the majority of its content to 931 B.C. at the latest.
Most of book’s proverbs appear in the form of metaphors or couplets, highlighting the contrast between good and evil, practical and impractical, wise and foolish, righteous and wicked, and so forth. Proverbs teaches the necessity of basic wisdom in the lives of people and points the way to a godly existence on the earth. It provides level-headed perspective, warnings and instruction on a wide range of subjects, including personal conduct, parenthood, morality, business, charity, ethics and more.
Unique in its simplicity and clarity, Proverbs distills many of the key truths of life, helping us to know the mind of God and apply true wisdom in all situations to our benefit and His glory.
I, the Preacher, have been king over Israel in Jerusalem. And I set my mind to seek and explore by wisdom concerning all that has been done under heaven. It is a grievous task which God has given to the sons of men to be afflicted with. I have seen all the works which have been done under the sun, and behold, all is vanity and striving after wind. — Ecclesiastes 1:12-14
The title of Ecclesiastes is derived from a Greek word that translates as "preacher." The book was written by Solomon, presumably in his old age, and it provides an insightful, sobering reflection on the nature of life. He preaches candidly on the futility of human endeavor, the depravity of man, and the folly of pursuits "under the sun."
Consistent with the inspired wisdom found in the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes delivers thoughtful perspective and practical advice by way of its various warnings and encouragements. While dismissing worldly wisdom, riches, labor, legacy, and other empty bids for fulfillment as "vanity," Solomon endorses good works, charity, obedience, humility, and enjoying simple pleasures as some of the keys to living a truly contented and gratified life.
Ecclesiastes provides a straight response to man’s search for the meaning of life. All things are appointed by God, and man’s recognition of this fact is important in developing an accurate worldview. Having reflected on an earthly existence framed by his own experiences and excesses, Solomon concludes that the best thing a person can do to know true satisfaction is to fear God and keep His commandments. God has set eternity in the heart of man, and thus has provided a hope and a cause for joy that transcends this life. By rejoicing in God’s provision and seeking righteousness throughout his days on the earth, man best achieves his true purpose—glorifying his Creator and Lord.
“Put me like a seal over your heart, like a seal on your arm. For love is as strong as death, jealousy is as severe as Sheol; Its flashes are flashes of fire, the very flame of the Lord. Many waters cannot quench love, nor will rivers overflow it; If a man were to give all the riches of his house for love, it would be utterly despised.” — Song of Solomon 8:6-7
The Song of Solomon (or Song of Songs) marks the conclusion of the "wisdom books" section of the Old Testament and stands as a lyrical celebration of love and faithfulness within marriage. It is traditionally held to have been written by Solomon early in his reign (c. 950 B.C.), and is unique among the biblical texts in that it appears in the form of a single poem from start to finish.
The content of the Song is largely a discourse between Solomon (the king) and his bride (the Shulamite girl) through which aspects of their courtship, wedding and relationship are shared. Through the delights and difficulties of marriage, it is the ongoing presence of mutual love, passion, praise, faithfulness and reassurance that will make it successful. Biblical marriage is a gift of God, and it is through these elements that its joys are fully realized.
Due to some of its sensitive subject matter the Song of Solomon is not commonly heard preached, but it importantly characterizes the marriage union as divinely ordained and a facet of God’s grace to be cherished. While its literal message is clear, it has often been suggested that the Song also serves as an illustration and foreshadowing of Christ’s love for His church (Song 2:4).
“Behold, God is my salvation, I will trust and not be afraid; For the Lord God is my strength and song, and He has become my salvation.” — Isaiah 12:2
Isaiah begins the lengthy section of the Old Testament in which the inspired proclamations of God’s true prophets are recorded. The book receives its title from its author, who was called to preach in the kingdom of Judah during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (731-681 B.C.). Isaiah’s name translates from Hebrew as “salvation of the Lord”, a major theme of the text.
The book expresses God’s condemnation of Judah for its hypocrisy, sinfulness, and unfaithfulness, and warns that earthly and eternal judgments are coming. Israel is portrayed as a vineyard lovingly prepared and protected by God, but one that has proven unfruitful and will be dealt with accordingly. The “six woes” outlined in chapter 5 summarize transgressions of the people that have triggered His divine wrath. Through Isaiah, the Lord pronounces specific judgments on Israel and the surrounding states, while promising redemption for a believing remnant comprised of those who will repent and obey Him. The judgments Isaiah describes include the imminent actions of God that a 6th century B.C. audience would recognize, as well as the final judgment of the end times.
Isaiah crucially emphasizes God’s holiness and mercy, and the ultimate expression of His grace in Christ. Heavily referenced by the New Testament writers, Isaiah presents the most complete view of Christ in Old Testament scripture, describing His miraculous birth, the news of deliverance and salvation, His atoning sacrifice, and the glorification of His people. In its Suffering Servant motif of chapters 52 and 53, Isaiah paints a vivid and definitive picture of Jesus as the final atonement for sin and redemption of mankind before a holy God.
“Behold, days are coming,” declares the Lord, “when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah, not like the covenant which I made with their fathers in the day I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt, My covenant which they broke, although I was a husband to them,” declares the Lord. “But this is the covenant which I will make with the house of Israel after those days,” declares the Lord, “I will put My law within them and on their heart I will write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My people. They will not teach again, each man his neighbor and each man his brother, saying, ‘Know the Lord,’ for they will all know Me, from the least of them to the greatest of them,” declares the Lord, “for I will forgive their iniquity, and their sin I will remember no more.” — Jeremiah 31:31-34
Jeremiah preached in Judah from 627 to 586 B.C., from the reign of King Josiah to the Babylonian conquest and the abrupt end of the Jewish monarchy. Throughout this period, the kings of Judah increasingly turned from God and placed their faith in political alliances for national security and prosperity. It is this faithlessness and disobedience that concerned Jeremiah; he decries the nation’s failure to honor their covenant with God and urgently calls for the people to repent in order to avoid judgment.
Jeremiah’s ministry though, was marked by frustration — his warnings to the people went unheeded, he was imprisoned by King Zedekiah for his dire predictions, and God would soon deliver the nation to conquest and destruction. Jeremiah’s testimony stands out among the Old Testament prophetical writings in the sense of emotion and introspection it conveys; his despondency over the sin of the people and the harsh consequences that are forthcoming is unmistakable.
However, in the midst of Jeremiah’s warnings is the proclamation of a “new covenant” between God and the people of Israel and Judah in which His law will be written “within them and on their heart” — thus bestowing upon the people a new disposition to faith and obedience. The promise marks a pivotal revelation in God’s unfolding covenant of grace through which believers are redeemed. Exemplified in Christ, it is by grace—not obedience to stone tablets and temple ordinances—that God’s people will know Him and their ultimate spiritual restoration will be achieved.
My soul has been rejected from peace; I have forgotten happiness. So I say, “My strength has perished, and so has my hope from the Lord.” Remember my affliction and my wandering, the wormwood and bitterness. Surely my soul remembers and is bowed down within me. This I recall to my mind, therefore I have hope. The Lord’s lovingkindnesses indeed never cease, for His compassions never fail. They are new every morning; great is Your faithfulness. “The Lord is my portion,” says my soul, “therefore I have hope in Him.” The Lord is good to those who wait for Him, to the person who seeks Him. It is good that he waits silently for the salvation of the Lord. — Lamentations 3:17-26
Written by the prophet Jeremiah in the aftermath of the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., Lamentations mourns the catastrophe and the consequential scattering and exile of the people of Judah. It is a poetic work expressing the emotions of one who witnessed the events firsthand, from raw anguish and grief, to frustration at the people’s inability to repent and avoid the tragedy, to despair over God’s forsaking of His own, to the hopeful appeal to His mercy for restoration.
In allowing Judah to be conquered by the Babylonians, God delivered severe judgment for years of disobedience and faithlessness by the people and their rulers. Jeremiah painfully recounts what has transpired and struggles to comprehend the outcome, even though he had been appointed by God to warn the people of His impending wrath and call them to repentance. He remained in the land during the exile, and the reader gets a distinct sense of the desolation he observes. Lamentations underscores the importance of mourning over sin and seeking God’s forgiveness, and its message arduously progresses from grief towards hopefulness. Jeremiah concludes with intercessory prayer, as the prophet implores God to remember His people and restore their inheritance.
Then He said to me, “Son of man, I am sending you to the sons of Israel, to a rebellious people who have rebelled against Me; they and their fathers have transgressed against Me to this very day. I am sending you to them who are stubborn and obstinate children, and you shall say to them, ‘Thus says the Lord God.’ As for them, whether they listen or not—for they are a rebellious house—they will know that a prophet has been among them. — Ezekiel 2:3-5
Ezekiel was a Jewish priest exiled to Babylon in 598 B.C. after King Jehoiachin was deposed by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. His prophetic ministry began five years into his captivity in a Babylonian village called Tel-abib and continued until about 570 B.C. Living among fellow exiles, Ezekiel preached a message that balanced the Israelites’ deserved judgment for their sins with hope in the Lord for deliverance and restoration.
The book reinforces much about the nature of God, beginning with Ezekiel’s account of his prophetical calling— an overwhelming vision of the Lord’s holiness, majesty, omniscience and perfect justice. Ezekiel’s preaching initially focuses on repentance, the condemnation of Judah and neighboring states, and impending judgments. However after the fulfillment of the prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., the message progresses to one of consolation, hopefulness and restoration.
Historical narrative is spare in Ezekiel as the visions and oracles given to the “son of man” receive primary and detailed emphasis, allowing the reader to perceive the revelations to some degree as Ezekiel did. Through the vivid prophecies of the Valley of Dry Bones, Gog and Magog, third temple, and other key visions, Ezekiel contributes much to our understanding of the restoration of God’s people and end time events. Chapter 34 includes an important denouncement of the Jewish religious leadership as false shepherds that neglect, mislead, and exploit God’s people for selfish gain. The illustration contrasts with Christ’s New Testament portrayal as the Good Shepherd, whose dedication to His sheep extends to sacrificing His life for them.
The testimony of Ezekiel, as it did with the exiles to whom he originally preached, points us to faith in God and obedience to His will. People and nations will rise, sin, and fall, but God is constant, holy and all-sufficient. It is only through His grace that genuine peace and stability in this life and beyond may be achieved.
“If it be so, our God whom we serve is able to deliver us from the furnace of blazing fire; and He will deliver us out of your hand, O king. But even if He does not, let it be known to you, O king, that we are not going to serve your gods or worship the golden image that you have set up.” —Daniel 3:17-18
Daniel was a Jewish noble whose prophetic ministry began in his youth with the first deportation of Israelites to Babylon after King Jehoiachin was deposed around 605 B.C., and extended until approximately 539 B.C. His written account concludes the testimony of the Major Prophets in the Old Testament. Daniel’s faithfulness and resolve to serve God against the backdrop of a dominant, foreign, pagan culture provides a model of Christian witness and discipleship.
At the time of his exile, Daniel was one of several young, well-educated Israelites being groomed for service in the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar’s court. God bestowed on Daniel great wisdom and the special ability to receive and interpret visions and dreams, which allowed him to find favor with the king and promote to positions of great influence within the government. His service would continue into the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar’s son Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and Cyrus II of Persia. The first six chapters of Daniel relate his experiences serving in the royal courts, and chapters 7-12 describe his apocalyptic visions relating to four world kingdoms, end times chronology, and the coming of the Messiah and eternal reign of God.
Daniel features several well-known episodes, including the fiery furnace sequence involving Daniel’s friends, the writing on the wall at Belshazzar’s feast, and Darius casting Daniel into a lions' den. Throughout the book, examples of a biblical response to earthly authority are provided. Believers are to comply with the law of man unless it requires them to do something God has forbidden, or to neglect what God has commanded. Daniel and his friends are obedient to their Babylonian rulers up until the point that they are told to do things that would disobey God, and when they refuse, they do so firmly yet respectfully.
While its eschatological value is often emphasized, the book of Daniel most importantly reinforces the reality of the universal sovereignty of God and the importance of believers to trust in Him regardless of environment or circumstance. The living God is greater than any earthly trial or difficulty a believer may face, and faith in His plan is what empowers them to endure.
“I will sow her for Myself in the land. I will also have compassion on her who had not obtained compassion, and I will say to those who were not My people, ‘You are My people!’ And they will say, ‘You are my God!’” — Hosea 2:23
The book of Hosea begins the final section of the Old Testament known as the “minor prophets”, so named because of the shorter length of their written testimonies in comparison to those of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. Hosea prophesied in the final years of the northern kingdom of Israel during the reigns of Jeroboam II and Hoshea, concurrent with the period in which Isaiah’s ministry was active in Judah. He was called to preach to the people in the midst of their precipitous spiritual and moral decline prior to the Assyrian conquest in 721 B.C.
Hosea is unique among the prophets in that his personal life exemplifies God’s relationship with His people. Right at the outset of his ministry, Hosea was commanded by God to take a “wife of harlotry” who would be unfaithful to him, as Israel had played the harlot with the idols of Canaan and broken its covenant relationship with the Lord.
The first three chapters of the book provide the narrative of Hosea’s prophetical call and the circumstances of his marriage. Hosea obediently marries Gomer, who is indeed unfaithful to him and is cast out as an adulteress. The names of their children (Jezreel, 'No Mercy', and 'Not My People') serve as prophecies of God’s response to the people’s infidelity and foreshadow the demise of the northern kingdom. The remainder of the book provides the parallel in its description of God’s adoption, accusal, judgment and eventual redemption of Israel (often "Ephraim" in the text).
Though condemnations and judgments comprise a majority of its material, compassion and forgiveness are the essential themes of Hosea. Through his troubled marriage, the prophet comes to a meaningful understanding of God’s heartbreak over the sinfulness of Israel. His forgiveness of Gomer and the restoration of his marriage illustrates the greater forgiveness of God and the restoration of His covenant people.
“Blow a trumpet in Zion, and sound an alarm on My holy mountain! Let all the inhabitants of the land tremble, for the day of the Lord is coming;” – Joel 2:1a
Though its omission of specific historical reference points makes accurate dating difficult, it is commonly held that Joel preached in Judah either during the reign of Joash (835-796 B.C.), or as late as the fourth or fifth century B.C. during the second temple period.
Joel recounts an unprecedented succession of locust plagues that decimated the land. The agricultural destruction was widespread and complete, even preventing the ability of the people to worship God with material offerings. Drought and famine followed, and through Joel's testimony the nation was commanded to lament the calamity and cry out to the Lord for deliverance.
Joel uses the event to develop the concept of “the day of the Lord” – the apocalyptic period of God’s ultimate judgment of sin and the purification of God’s chosen people through great suffering. In the same way a destructive locust swarm could not be controlled or stopped by human means, the outworking of God’s sovereign judgment will be likewise irresistible and all-consuming.
Joel's prophecy paints a sovering and vivid picture of God's future final judgments on the world, but it also includes a striking promise of hope and restoration. This is highlighted in 2:28 with the prediction of the coming of the Holy Spirit, the One through whom Christ's redemptive work is applied to believers, ensuring their ultimate reconciliation to God. The spirit enables true repentance and faith, which are the only means by which any may endure the day of the Lord.
“Alas, you who are longing for the day of the Lord, for what purpose will the day of the Lord be to you? It will be darkness and not light;” – Amos 5:18
Amos was active during the reigns of Uzziah in Judah and Jeroboam II in Israel, which was a fifteen year period from 767 to 753 B.C. An ordinary “herdsman and a grower of sycamore figs”, Amos was a contemporary of Isaiah and Hosea who lived in Judah but was called by God to rebuke Israel and the surrounding nations.
Israel was in a period of prosperity, and though the religious establishment was going through the motions of obedience and worship, the people had taken God's blessings for granted and become spiritually corrupt. Amos took the nation into account for its hypocrisy, idolatry, immorality and in particular its social injustices, which included oppression and mistreatment of the poor.
Perhaps more than the other prophets, Amos’s testimony focuses heavily on the transgressions of the people and God's resulting condemnation, with little counterweight of the divine promise of restoration. Israel is denounced as “a sinful kingdom” to be punished, and despite its heritage as God’s favored nation, it will not be exempted from His standard of obedience – expressed as a “plumb line” shown to Amos; rather it will be sentenced to earthly judgment and its unfaithful population subjected to the “day of the Lord” final judgment right along with the surrounding pagan nations.
Importantly however, the text concludes with God’s promise that He will preserve a faithful remnant of His people and restore their land. The prophecy extends beyond the earthly restoration of Israel as a nation to the promise of the everlasting kingdom of Christ.
“For the day of the Lord draws near on all the nations. As you have done, it will be done to you. Your dealings will return on your own head.” – Obadiah 1:15
Obadiah is believed to have preached in or around Jerusalem between 848-840 B.C. At 21 verses, his prophecy concerning the nation of Edom is probably best known as being the shortest book in the Old Testament. Similar to the testimonies of Nahum and Habakkuk, the book of Obadiah primarily levels its message at a foreign people.
The descendants of Esau inhabited Edom, a land located directly south of Judah, and animosity had existed between the Edomites and Israelites dating back to the days of Esau and Jacob. During the reign of Jehosophat (870-849 B.C.) the Edomites threw in with Ammon and Moab in an invasion (2 Chronicles 20:10-23, peoples of "Mount Seir"), and during the reign of his son Jehorem the Edomites staged a revolt (2 Kings 8:20-22) and took advantage of an invasion by the Philistines, Arabs, and Ethiopians (2 Chronicles 21:16-17) to prey on fleeing Judahites. The latter event is described in some detail by Obadiah and is cited as triggering God’s wrath.
Obadiah recounts the transgressions of the Edomites and outlines how God will humble and destroy them. The prophecy extends to the distant future and the "day of the Lord" judgment on all surrounding nations who oppose the people of God, in possibly the earliest scriptural appearance of the phrase. The final verse, referencing "deliverers" (or "saviors") ascending Zion, predicts the coming of the church and an ultimately unified kingdom in Christ.
When God saw their deeds, that they turned from their wicked way, then God relented concerning the calamity which He had declared He would bring upon them. And He did not do it. – Jonah 3:10
Presented in third person but traditionally credited to its namesake, the book of Jonah describes the reluctant evangelistic ministry of a prophet typically believed to have been active during the reign of Jeroboam II in Israel (793-753 B.C.). Jonah would have been a contemporary of Amos and one of the few prophets native to the northern kingdom.
God calls Jonah to prophesy to the wicked population of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, and Jonah immediately flees in the opposite direction, boarding a ship bound for the other end of the Mediterranean Sea. God engulfs the ship in a severe storm, prompting the sailors to cast lots to determine who has brought on the calamity. It is found to be Jonah, who admits it is due to his disobedience to God. Eventually they throw him overboard to save themselves.
God appoints a “great fish” to swallow Jonah, and after three days and three nights within, Jonah prays for mercy and deliverance. God responds by commanding the fish, which has been heading back toward Nineveh, to vomit Jonah onto land. He then directs the prophet a second time to go warn the Ninevites that they will be overthrown in 40 days. This time Jonah complies, Nineveh collectively and sincerely repents to avoid divine judgment, and God spares them.
Jonah angrily overreacts to God’s decision, as he was loathe to see pagan Nineveh reconciled to the God of Israel, and God questions his bitterness. Jonah leaves the city and camps nearby. God causes a plant to grow over Jonah’s shelter to protect him from the sun, then promptly appoints a worm to destroy it and sends a scorching wind. Jonah suffers in the heat and is bitter over the plant’s demise. God rebukes him, contrasting his grief over the plant with his complete lack of compassion for the people of Nineveh.
The book of Jonah emphasizes God’s omniscience, omnipresence, and sovereignty over all things. We cannot run from our responsibilities to God, and His employment of a disobedient, combative, and prejudiced messenger such as Jonah to accomplish one of the great evangelical feats recorded in scripture underscores the truth that His purposes are always achieved, despite the inclinations or imperfection of the vessel.
The sequence with Jonah and the great fish has great significance in scripture as a type, or foreshadowing of Christ’s death and resurrection, as Jesus specifically connects the two events in the gospels (Matthew 12:39-41). Jonah provides a notable Old Testament picture of God’s capacity for mercy, exemplified in the prophet’s deliverance and the conversion of the Ninevites, which are mere reflections of His greatest act of mercy – the sending of God the Son to atone for the sin of mankind.
“Who is a God like You, who pardons iniquity and passes over the rebellious act of the remnant of His possession? He does not retain His anger forever, because He delights in unchanging love. He will again have compassion on us; He will tread our iniquities under foot. Yes, You will cast all their sins into the depths of the sea. – Micah 7:18-19
A contemporary of Isaiah, Micah prophecied in Judah during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah (c. 742-696 B.C.), directing his messages at the leadership of both Judah and Israel. His active period coincides with the conquest of Israel by the Assyrians (722 B.C.), an event predicted in his written testimony (1:6). Micah underscores the familiar Old Testament themes of disobedience producing punishment and obedience producing blessings, balancing God’s judgment of sin with the hope believers may place in a future restoration.
The book begins with the wholesale condemnation of the leaders of Judah and Samaria (Israel) for their idolatry and exploitation of the people, the declaration of the impending judgment of God on both kingdoms, and the demand for genuine repentance. General repudiations of oppressors, evil rulers, and false prophets are given, and their due judgments outlined. The divine promise of restoration is then revealed (2:12-13), along with a striking prediction of the birth of Jesus Christ (5:2) who will enable man’s ultimate restoration. The harmony and stability created by the expansion of Christ’s kingdom on the earth is illustrated (chapter 4), His blessings and protection of the faithful remnant of believers is delineated (5:7-15), as well as His expectation that His people be obedient and reflect His nature (6:8).
Micah’s testimony concludes with the powerful reminder that all are sinful and sin will be addressed, yet God alone is the source of light and salvation, and He is faithful to fulfill His promises to those who are faithful to Him.
“The Lord is slow to anger and great in power, and the Lord will by no means leave the guilty unpunished. – Nahum 1:3
The prophet Nahum is only identified in the opening of his own written testimony, the content of which indicates he would have preached sometime between 663 B.C. (fall of Amon) and 612 B.C. (fall of Nineveh). The text focuses squarely on God’s coming judgment of Nineveh, approximately 100 years after the prophet Jonah had successfully evangelized the Assyrian capital and stirred its people to repentance, forestalling God’s wrath until Nahum’s time.
It was only within about 50 years of Jonah’s ministry that Assyria had conquered Israel and had begun menacing Judah. This idolatrous nation was a brutal oppressor, and with anxiety no doubt high throughout the region, Nahum’s prediction of Nineveh’s destruction would have been reassuring to the Jews. His message first establishes the awesome power of God and His uninhibited ability to render justice, then declares that despite its impressive strength, Nineveh will be completely overthrown. Through Nahum God delivers the chilling notice to Assyria that “Behold, I am against you,” then itemizes the devastation that is on the way. Soon after this prophecy, God would indeed use the Babylonians and Medes to crush the Assyrian Empire, with the siege and sacking of Nineveh occurring in 612 B.C.
Though God is compassionate, gracious and slow to anger, eventually the bill of sin comes due. Disobedience and a lack of repentance will always produce judgment, and despite being spared divine punishment a century before, the Ninevites turned from God for good and were ultimately laid waste. The compliment to God’s perfect justice is His perfect mercy, which in this instance came to faithful Israel by the overthrow of an ungodly occupying nation. The knowledge of God’s vast capacity for mercy is certainly the best of news, and several centuries later the apostle Paul would use the imagery of Nahum 1:15 in Romans 10:15 to express the value of the ultimate good news, the gospel of grace and salvation in Christ.
“Then the Lord answered me and said, “Record the vision and inscribe it on tablets, that the one who reads it may run. For the vision is yet for the appointed time; it hastens toward the goal and it will not fail. Though it tarries, wait for it; for it will certainly come, it will not delay. Behold, as for the proud one, his soul is not right within him; but the righteous will live by his faith.” – Habakkuk 2:4
The name of the prophet Habakkuk appears only in his written prophecy, and nothing else is definitively known about him. His reference to the rise of the Babylonians (1:6, “Chaldeans”) as an aggressor nation has led scholars to date his testimony to approximately 610-605 B.C., which would make him a contemporary of Jeremiah and Zephaniah. The focus on Babylon, which besieged Jerusalem in the years that followed, suggests that Habakkuk was active in or around that city. His account is unique in that it specifically records a conversation between the prophet and God.
Habakkuk wrestles with the limitations of human understanding in his attempt to reconcile God’s holy nature with His perceived indifference to the evil and injustice in society. God allows the prophet’s questions, explaining that He is indeed bringing judgment to the wicked of Judah by way of the Babylonians, but Habakkuk has difficulty accepting God’s use of a nation that he considers more wicked and ungodly than his own as the instrument of justice. God responds to this by describing five ‘woes’ that trigger His judgment against unrighteous nations – which in this case will include both Judah and Babylon. He notes that while the proud are condemned, the righteous will live by their faith – a foundational truth later quoted by the apostle Paul in his letters to the Romans and Galatians. God finishes the discourse by commanding the earth to be silent before Him. Though frustrated by the Lord’s methods, Habakkuk understands that those methods are higher and justified, and obediently directs his energy to prayer and praise.
The book of Habakkuk emphasizes the necessity of faith in God, even though we may not clearly see His hand at work or understand His purposes. He will mete out blessings and justice in His own way, in His own time – perfectly. From a human perspective, God may at times appear silent and disengaged, but the faithful are to be strengthened by the knowledge of His sovereignty and the promise of His word.
Seek the Lord, all you humble of the earth who have carried out His ordinances; seek righteousness, seek humility. Perhaps you will be hidden in the day of the Lord’s anger.” – Zephaniah 2:3
The book of Zephaniah clearly identifies its author as a great-great-grandson of King Hezekiah of Judah, prophesizing during the reign of Josiah (640–609 B.C.) in Jerusalem. His prophecy is one of the more sobering to be found in the Old Testament, as it describes imminent judgments on Judah and the surrounding region as well as God’s future “day of the Lord” judgment on the entire earth.
Zephaniah condemns Judah for its moral and religious corruption, along with its traditional enemies for their idolatry and arrogance, forecasting the looming fall of Judah and the overthrows of Philistia, Moab, Ethiopia and Assyria. He calls for humility, repentance, and turning to God if any are to be spared. The prophecy brings into focus God’s future, final judgment in which He will essentially reverse the creation order and level the entire earth without discrimination. Despite the promised destruction, the Lord will purify and sustain a faithful remnant of His elect gathered from all nations, sparing them from His ultimate judgment. The testimony concludes with a picture of the future, fully realized kingdom of Christ as God eternally blesses and lives among a fully reconciled people.
In Zephaniah, God’s sovereignty over all nations and promise of His righteous judgment of sin is front and center. The prophet refers “the day of the Lord” more times than any of his Old Testament peers and vividly describes God’s ultimate wrath against the immoral and ungodly, yet those dire pronouncements are balanced by the promise of restoration and blessing. Though their number may be few, God will be certain to remember and keep those who are faithful to Him.
“Thus says the Lord of hosts, ‘This people says, “The time has not come, even the time for the house of the Lord to be rebuilt.”’” Then the word of the Lord came by Haggai the prophet, saying, “Is it time for you yourselves to dwell in your paneled houses while this house lies desolate?” – Haggai 1:2-4
The book of Haggai records the four inspired messages of the prophet of the same name. Haggai is mentioned in the book of Ezra and he preached in Jerusalem during the time that the first group of Jews returned from the Babylonian captivity. His messages, dated to 520 B.C., are directed primarily to Zerubbabel, a descendent of David who had been appointed governor of Judah by Darius I of Persia. Haggai’s account stands out in that he gives exact dates for each instance that the word of the Lord came to him, as well as its indication that the people positively responded to what the prophet had to say.
Haggai’s first message chastises the Jewish people for their misplaced priorities and neglect of the work of rebuilding the temple in Jerusalem, ironically a stated purpose of their release from captivity. They claimed that the time had not yet come to begin that work, but as God points out, they obviously believed that the time was right to build their own houses. God reveals that He has cursed their day-to-day existence, rendering all efforts unproductive as long as the temple lay in ruins; their lack of devotion to the Lord relates directly to the difficulties they have faced since their return. He commands them to restore the temple, and the people obey Him and fear His presence. God declares that He is with them, and the work begins in earnest.
In the second message, God has the people compare their remembrance of the first temple’s splendor with that of the one they are building, and encourages them by promising greater glory to the new temple. He will abide with and strengthen them in their work, and will bring about the future glory and peace by His presence and sovereign action. The third message begins with God using examples from ceremonial law to illustrate the spiritual uncleanness of the people. Though He had previously punished them by rendering their efforts unfruitful, He has noted that they have prioritized the temple and identifies the exact day when He would bless their work going forward. The final message emphasizes God’s sovereign will and foreshadows His ultimate judgment of the nations. The formal anointing of Zerubbabel – an ancestor of Jesus – as His chosen, points up the continuation of the Davidic line and the guaranteed preservation of a faithful remnant of believers, culminating in the kingdom of Christ.
“Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout in triumph, O daughter of Jerusalem! Behold, your king is coming to you; He is just and endowed with salvation, humble, and mounted on a donkey, even on a colt, the foal of a donkey.” – Zechariah 9:9
Zechariah was active in Judah concurrently with Haggai, preaching to the remnant of Jews who had returned from Babylon and had begun the work of rebuilding the temple in Jerusalem, prior to the arrival of Ezra and Nehemiah. His written testimony is understood to have been received during two general time periods – the first eight chapters which cite specific dates between 520 to 518 B.C., and the last five chapters much later, generally estimated to be around 480-470 B.C.
The book begins with a call to repentance and a return to the Lord to avoid the judgments of the past. In heavily symbolized visions described in chapters 1-8, Zechariah predicts the reclamation and future prosperity of Jerusalem, the judgment of aggressor nations, the judgment and purification of God’s people, the completion of the second temple, and the promise of the Messiah. The far distant prophecies of Chapters 9-15 begin with a description of Israel’s deliverance from future Greek oppression and the promise of the coming of Christ, including specific details of His entrance into Jerusalem, which would be corroborated in the gospel account some 500 years later. The destruction of Judah by the Romans, the Jews’ rejection of Christ, the rise of the antichrist, Christ's second coming, and the eventual restorations and judgments associated with the final “Day of the Lord” events are predicted.
Through his vivid visions and prophecies, Zechariah gave insight to the returning remnant about Israel’s immediate and distant future. Despite its promises of future tribulation and judgment of sin, Zechariah’s testimony provided assurance to the people at a critical time in their effort to restore their culture, culminating in the certainty of Christ’s eternal, sovereign and righteous reign, and the renewal and everlasting blessing of the faithful through Him.
“Behold, I am going to send My messenger, and he will clear the way before Me. And the Lord, whom you seek, will suddenly come to His temple; and the messenger of the covenant, in whom you delight, behold, He is coming,” says the Lord of hosts. But who can endure the day of His coming? And who can stand when He appears? For He is like a refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap. 3 He will sit as a smelter and purifier of silver, and He will purify the sons of Levi and refine them like gold and silver, so that they may present to the Lord offerings in righteousness. 4 Then the offering of Judah and Jerusalem will be pleasing to the Lord as in the days of old and as in former years.” – Malachi 3:1-4
The final word of the Old Testament, the book of Malachi is generally accepted to have been written after the restoration of Jerusalem and the dedication of the second temple, during the mid 400s B.C. The prophet would have been active at or around the time of Nehemiah’s second return from Persia, after the prophetical ministries of Haggai and Zechariah. Jewish tradition suggests that “Malachi” and the priest/scribe Ezra were the same person. The name Malachi translates to “messenger” and it is not known for certain if this is the actual name of the writer.
Over the century following the reestablishment of religious culture in Judah, the people had become sinful and apathetic towards God, and Malachi delivers the warning to repent and return to Him. The message is directed primarily at the priests in Jerusalem, who had become indifferent and negligent in administering the prescribed sacrificial system. These offenses had also been noted by Nehemiah (13:7-11), and Malachi goes on to indict the nation in general for its sin – men had been unfaithful and abusive to their wives, people dealt treacherously with one another, tithed inadequately, and did not follow God’s ordinances as instructed. They then wondered why God did not appear to be accepting their sacrifices, and through Malachi, God enlightens them.
Chapter 3 presents Jesus Christ in His second coming, as a “refiner’s fire” who will purify faithful Israel, making propitiation for the offense of sin as only He can. Judgment is promised for those who do not return to the Lord, but He will spare a remnant who are faithful. The prophecy closes with an admonition to adhere to God’s law, along a picture of the future Day of the Lord and final judgment, when the wicked are consumed by fire and the obedient are restored by faith. Malachi would be the final prophetic word for some 400 years, until the emergence of John the Baptist in the wilderness of Judah, the “messenger” who precedes Christ (3:1). The written word of God would continue and ultimately complete with the New Testament’s revelation of the gospel message.
Scripture Alone • Faith Alone • Grace Alone • Christ Alone • To the Glory of God Alone
Most scripture quotations taken from the New American Standard Bible® (NASB)
